The Uniting Power of Music
Whether it is to form emotional connections, punctuate daily activities, inspire change, motivate, and/or provide an alternative to mainstream societies, few activities that we engage in as humans have the power to help individuals transcend differences and come together than music. Further, music can be enjoyed across differing stimulus levels: 1) auditory – listening to the instruments, rhythm, lyrics, and how that combination makes the listener feel, 2) the visual or stylistic component – the appearance of the artists and the way the music is presented, and/or 3) kinesthetic – moving to the music as one is creating it or as one is listening to it. Additionally, music has the power to bring people together, whether through individuals with common interests as well as people who might not interact with each other if it weren’t for a particular song, artist, or genre. Thus, music has the ability to touch the emotions of people allowing them to connect in surprising and meaningful manners.
BACKGROUND
Jill Suttie of the Greater Good Science Center at the University of California, Berkley opens her article “Four Ways Music Promotes Social Bonds” with the question: “Why would human evolution have given us music?” Drawing on research, Suttie organizes findings into four reasons which explain why and how music promotes social bonds: 1) music increases contact, coordination, and cooperation with others through positive social feelings and the trust created through cooperation, 2) music boosts oxytocin, the “feel good” hormone released when individuals experience something enjoyable, 3) music strengthens a person’s ability to relate to what others are thinking/feeling, and 4) music helps convey a sense of belonging.
The manner in which music fosters social bonding and relationships is something that has been acknowledged by scholars, ethnomusicians, anthropologists, and evolutionary theorists (Boer and Abubaker 1). Additionally, researchers have noted participating in music through creating and moving to it not only makes people happy by providing an enjoyable experience, but also creates a powerful cohesive effect on an individual’s psychological well-being as well as increasing tolerance to physical stress and pain thresholds (Boer and Abubaker 1; Tarr, Launay, and Dunbar 4; Koelsch 207). Stephan Koelsch, a German professor of biological psychology and music psychology who, in his article “From Social Contact to Social Cohesion – The 7 Cs,” begins by sharing the anecdote of Ernest Shackleton and his Artic exploration of 1914. Their ship Endurance became frozen in the water forcing the crew to abandon it and walk on foot pulling only those items necessary for survival: food, cooking and eating utensils, clothes, tents, and a banjo. According to Shackleton’s account, “making music (singing and playing) made them stick together and not give up” and “did much to keep the men cheerful” (Koelsch 204); this account suggests that the positive effects of playing the banjo and singing on Shackleton’s crew may have motivated them enough to continue their trek and ultimately may have saved their lives.
What is it about music that can facilitate relationships? According to Tarr, Launay, and Dunbar the answer lies in the manner in which people make music and move to music. Music has been an important social activity throughout human history and across cultures because of how people synchronize movements and rhythms. Therefore, it is through synchronization that “people can become increasingly socially close to one another through making similar movements” such as making music or moving to music (Tarr, Launay, and Dunbar 1). The authors explain that through the simultaneous movements with others that is matched to a rhythmic beat a “positive feedback loop [is created] in which people can become increasingly socially close to one another and [then become] more inclined to continue making similar movements once social closeness is established [producing] a pronounced effect of social bonding” (Tarr, Launay, and Dunbar, 2). These simultaneous movements can refer to the making of music and/or moving to music.
Koelsch examines the effects music making and moving to music has on a person’s ability to connect with others and created seven categories, or the 7Cs: 1) Contact – “Being in contact with other individuals is a basic need of humans” and “it is perhaps not so surprising that, despite the availability of high-quality recordings, people indeed go to the trouble of attending concerts at all” (205), 2) Social Cognition – “listening to music automatically engages areas dedicated to social cognition … These processes are also required when making music in a group, for example, when varying tempo and/ or loudness, during improvisation, and so on” (205-206), 3) Co-Pathy – “refers to social function of empathy, that interindividual empathic states become more homogeneous, thus decreasing conflicts and promoting cohesion of a group … [it] is also a means of the emotional identification of individuals with particular subcultures, lifestyles, ethnic groups and social classes” (206), 4) Communication – “emotional expression [where] music can convey group as well as individual emotions, as in political protest songs and symbolic representation which refers to the communication of extra-musical information, such as
narratives in program music” (206), 5) Coordination – referring to making music and dancing: “individuals [have to] synchronize to a beat and to keep a beat. The coordination of movements in a group of individuals appears to be associated with pleasure” (206), 6) Coordination – “A convincing musical performance by multiple players is only possible if it also involves cooperation between players. Cooperation involves a shared goal, and engaging in cooperative behavior is an important potential source of pleasure” (207), and 7) Social Cohesion – “As an effect, music leads to increased social cohesion of a group. A wealth of studies showed that humans have a ‘need to belong,’ and a strong motivation to form and maintain enduring interpersonal attachments” (207). Of these seven aspects, Koelsch wrote, “The ability, and the need, to engage in these social functions is part of what makes us human, and the emotional effects of engaging in these functions include experiences of reward, fun, joy, and happiness” (Koelsch 205). Thus, given all the research findings stating how and why music is a powerful tool for creating foundations for relationships, it is hardly surprising that individuals who have found themselves on the margins of society have created their own type of music as an important part of their identity.
MARGINALIZED TO MAINSTREAM
In creating their identity, marginalized individuals do not passively accept and allow themselves to be directed in a particular way, these individuals actively revolt against the mainstream way of thinking, behaving, and appearing. Hebdige’s discussion of Genet making choices “He ‘chooses’ his crimes, his sexuality, the repugnance and outrage he arouses in the streets” (Hebdige 138) is a prime example of the role choice plays when it comes to subcultures and countercultures. For these nonmainstream cultures, choice is what makes them different: if someone joins that group, he/she doesn’t have to subscribe to the majority way of thinking but a minority way of thinking, behaving, and appearing; something that demonstrates an open rejection of what is perceived to be forced on them (e.g. ways of thinking, behaving, and/or appearing) by the consumer culture.
Style – in reference to one’s appearance – plays into the hands of the snap judgements first impressions offer: What category or group does this person fit into? By choosing what to include and exclude, at least in terms of clothing, these individuals are silently exclaiming “I am not a blind follower! I am not controlled by anyone!” As a result of these intentional choices, these individuals are looked down on because of their deviance from mainstream society, the majority of people who seem to receive their guidance about what is appropriate from the entertainment industry. Bricolage, as explored by Hebdige, offers a grounded explanation about why and how the fashion choice of punk illustrates a deliberate choice to overtly defy the mainstream attitudes and appearance. Through bricolage, individuals can choose what parts of mainstream fashion they want to use to create their own different identity. Adorno and Horkheimer also comment on how style and/or fashion is equated with controlling the masses: “In the culture industry, the notion of genuine style is seen to be the aesthetic equivalent of domination” (1115) where “the mechanical reproduction of beauty” (1118) is promoted through the entertainment industry; subcultures and countercultures choose their style instead of having it dictated to them.
Instead of conforming and accepting, individuals on the outskirts of mainstream society question and defy the status quo; perhaps like the island of misfit toys, everyone who is different bands together to challenge mainstream society and the blind acceptance that many chose because it is easier than considering serious issues in society. Every group that has been marginalized by the mainstream society has created its own specific social rituals, style, language, and music which make it unique and separate from not just the mainstream, dominant culture but other marginalized groups as well. The music and/or style of these groups was specific to that group, and it was never intended to be available to anyone outside the group, let alone mass produced. However, as time passed and the songs made their way outside the group many music styles became popular and even influenced other mainstream musicians. Therefore, it is not surprising that songs and dances that were originally germane to a specific group of people are frequently recognizable to members of mainstream society.
For the music forms discussed below – African American Spirituals, Reggae, and Hip-Hop – each started out as a survival mechanism to help these individuals who found themselves marginalized cope with difficult situations they encountered. As cited by Boer and Abubaker; Tarr, Launay and Dunbar; Suttie; and Koelsch, through the use of music making and moving to music, these groups of people were able create strong bonds and relationships often to the dismay of the dominant culture who tried to ban the music and/or discredit and/or marginalize the group even further. After the passage of time, these musical forms began to spread beyond the originating group and receive attention from those who may be sympathetic to the music makers and/or relate in some way to the music.
African American Spirituals
Music had played a prominent role in everyday activities in Africa where singing, dancing, drumming and active music making were woven into the fabric of daily routines from insignificant activities to major life events. However, many slave masters viewed the African music and dancing to be too uncivilized and banned the music making unless the overseer deemed the song(s) appropriate (“African American Spirituals” Library of Congress; Jones). The songs, while appearing to be mere religious songs, frequently carried hidden meanings such as the deep desire for freedom, messages about escaping via the Underground Railway, or even rallying calls for revolts (Jones). Because the songs were spiritual on the surface and appeared to conform to the colonists’ idea of proper music, some slaves were allowed to sing while working while other times the music making happened in secret. The Authentic History Center included a quote from Frederick Douglas in a description about spirituals: “The remark in the olden time was not unfrequently made, that slaves were the most contented and happy laborers in the world, and their dancing and singing were referred to in proof of this alleged fact; but it was a great mistake to suppose them happy because they sometimes made those joyful noises. The songs of the slaves represented their sorrows, rather than their joys. Like tears, they were a relief to aching hearts.” From this first-hand account, it is clear that music became a coping mechanism which provided an emotional escape from the physical hardships of daily life as well as an opportunity to connect and forge relationships amongst each other.
The transition from slaves singing spirituals to spirituals receiving positive attention from others outside the slave community was when collections of these songs started being published after the abolition of slavery in the 1860s which led to the creation of the Jubilee Singers who performed this music throughout the US and Europe (“African American Spirituals” Library of Congress); these performances captured the hearts and minds of audiences as well as raised awareness about the experiences of slaves. As a result of their performances, composers began creating music in this style for performances of their own select singers and artists (“African American Spirituals” Library of Congress).
What began as music making to cope with their new reality, African American Spirituals became “one of the largest and most significant forms of American folksong” (“African American Spirituals” Library of Congress); this transition from oftentimes forbidden singing to influencing white Christian gospel music and becoming anthems for civil rights and social justice activists occurred over a period of roughly 100 years. In fact, one of the more well-known songs from the civil rights movements of the 1950s and 1960s “We Shall Overcome” was a combination of two spirituals (Jones). It was through this music making that the slaves were able to connect emotionally to create bonds, and, as Koelsch stated about the communicative role music plays, “convey group as well as individual emotions and symbolic representations” (206). It is also interesting to note that these spirituals and freedom songs, including “We Shall Overcome,” have made recent appearances during Black Lives Matter and LGBT protests.
Reggae
Reggae is another musical style with roots in African music. The role of music, and authentically black music at that, created a haven for those who felt disenfranchised, especially the teenagers and young adults of Jamaica who were struggling to form identities between their African past and the realities of newly being independent from Great Britain. “Reggae draws on quite a specific experience (the experience of black people in Jamaica and Great Britain) … It is cast in a unique style, in a language of its own – Jamaican patois, that shadow form, ‘stolen’ from the Master and mysteriously inflected, ‘decomposed’ and reassembled in the passage from Africa to the West Indies” and is “a living record of a people’s journey of the passage from slavery to servitude” (Hebdige 30-31).
Before reggae became known to the world, it was described by Dick Hebdige in his work Subculutre: The Meaning of Style as
“perhaps more than any other institution within working-class West Indian life was the site at which blackness could be most thoroughly explored, most clearly and uncompromisingly expressed. To a community hemmed in on all sides by discrimination, hostility, suspicion, and blank incomprehension, the sound-system came to represent, particularly for the young, a precious inner sanctum, uncontaminated by alien influences, a black heart beating back to Africa on a steady pulse of dub. And it was through music, more than any other medium, that the communication with the past with Jamaica, and hence Africa, considered vital for the maintenance of black identity, was possible. The ‘system’ turned on sound; the sound was intimately bound up with the notion of ‘culture; and if the system was attacked then the community itself was symbolically threatened” (38-39).
Through the sound system, people were able to connect to each other and their past; as Koelsch wrote “[be] in contact with other individuals [to fulfill] a basic [human] need,” (206) and experience the “feel good hormone [that is] released when individuals experience something enjoyable” (Suttie) and experience something that is uniquely theirs.
It was during the 1970s when the newly independent country was trying to find itself Bob Marley and other artists reacted to the turmoil by “channel[ing] their energies into culture and let it flow around the world” (Chang 23). Through films championing the rebel as a hero, The Harder They Come and Enter the Dragon, with soundtracks featuring homegrown music of Jamaica, reggae became “quintessential rebel music” (Chang 27). With the release of the album Catch a Fire in London in 1972, Bob Marley and the Wailers had begun the journey of making reggae the tool through which the struggles of third world culture would become mainstreamed with first world audiences (Chang 28). As a testament to reggae’s global influence, Fayetteville, Arkansas, close to the heartland of the US which is generally considered a culturally conservative part of the country, hosted a Birthday Bash for Bob Marley which promised to be “a musical extravaganza that spans the breath of this legends’ life and work” (“Arkansas – Celebrating One Life, One Love”).
Hip-Hop
Music as a change maker and a tool for reshaping the futures of many youth is detailed by Jeff Chang in his work Can’t Stop, Won’t Stop: A History of the Hip-Hop Generation. According to Chang, Clive Campbell, aka DJ Kool Herc, and Afrika Bambaataa almost singlehandedly revolutionized the Bronx using music as an outlet for frustration and release instead of the violence that had become such a regular part of life. Much as dance parties were “the people’s space, an autonomous zone presided over by men and women, a collective memory” (Chang 22) in Jamaica, parties in the Bronx provided an outlet where “people just enjoying themselves from like four years to forty” (Chang 80). Chang describes how DJ Kool Herc helped usher in a new era where crews would perform dance-offs at parties to showcase their moves but was able to keep the peace by “skillfully working the mic” and indirectly calling out potential troublemakers “Yo kill it, cut the bull**** out. You’re my man, cut the dumb sh**. You know and they know who I’m talking about. Okay? Alright” (80). Even though gangs were receeding, there were still turfs and violence, so DJs “backed themselves with area crews who kept the peace, and often, other crews out. As big as DJ Kool Herc was, he would not play Bronx River unless Bambaataa extended an invitation” (Chang 102). Afrika Bambaataa, a leader in the Zulu Nation, had recently returned to the Bronx from a trip to Africa after winning an essay contest; a trip that changed his outlook on life. His new purpose was to “Try to organize as many as I could to stop the violence. So I went around difference areas, telling them to join us and stop your fighting” (Chang 101). His new approach was mostly successful and he was able to unite a variety of gangs together: “if somebody didn’t do right and did wrong in our area, they had to really think, because it was a large percentage of areas that was down with Zulu,” and while most DJs played to particular crews, when Afrika Bambaataa hosted parties “the rawest rival crews [could] come together” (Chang 102). Ray Abrahante, a member of a Puerto Rican gang on the opposite side of the Bronx River which served as the dividing line between the Puerto Rican and African American gangs, remembers how apprehensive he was about attending a party hosted by Bambaata thinking it was a setup even though the flyers exclaimed “Free jam! Come one come all, leave your colors at home! Come in peace and unity” (Chang 104). Walking across the bridge, he noticed many other gang members headed towards the party too; upon arriving and being frisked by the bouncers, he entered into a full room with blaring music and excitement. He recalls how Bambaataa stopped the DJ and spoke in a sincere manner stating “how happy he was that that people came out;” Abrahante recalls being so impressed and inspired by this man who was “Trying to open the Bronx to everybody” (Chang 104-105). Through music and peaceful gatherings, groups who wouldn’t ordinarily interact and interact in a positive manner were able to come together under strong non-violent leadership.
What started as something unique to block parties in the inner Bronx during the early 70s burst into the mainstream music arena during the summer of 1979 with “Rapper’s Delight” – it “crossed over from New York’s insular hip-hop scene to Black radio, then charged up the American Top 40, and swept around the globe. Imitations popped up from Brazil to Jamaica” (Chang 131). Through making music and moving to music, people were able to channel their energy into positive and creative outlets. Young people of the Bronx experienced the positive effects of synchrony through dancing with a crew and moving rhythmically to music which then fostered social bonding and relationships (Tarr, Launay, and Dunbar).
FINAL THOUGHTS
The ability of music to bring marginalized people together is not limited to the music forms previously discussed, but it is one of the few mediums that can cross cultural borders allowing others to not just view the way those who live on the outskirts of society but experience the emotions of those people. With the advents of various technologies, new ways of research and studying the brain, researchers are able to pinpoint what is it that makes music – whether it is creating music, listening to it, or moving to it – help people connect with those outside of their culture/worldview.
In her article “Why We Love Music,” Suttie explores why people enjoy it so much and why it has such powerful emotional effects. She cites a study by Valorie Salimpoor, who with her colleagues from McGill University, studied people’s reactions to music through fMRI imagining technology which allowed the scientists to see when the pleasure area of the brain was activated. Salimpoor states, “Music affects deep emotional centers in the brain. A single sound tone is not really pleasurable in itself; but if these sounds are organized over time in some sort of arrangement, it’s amazingly powerful” and “Pleasure is a subjective phenomenon that is difficult to assess objectively. However, physiological changes occur during moments of extreme pleasure, which can be used to index pleasurable states in response to music” (Salimpoor, Benovoy, Larcher, Dagher, and Zatorre). Suttie explains that “dopamine, a hormone released with biological rewards such as eating and sex is released before and during the peak emotional moments in a song.” Salimpoor believes “this combination of anticipation and intense emotional release may explain why people love music so much, yet have such diverse tastes in music.”
A recent event in Wichita, Kansas demonstrated how the feel good hormone oxytocin and the biological reward hormone dopamine can indeed facilitate social bonding between individuals who seem to be frequently on opposite sides – the city’s police officers and members of the local Black Lives Matter movement. A protest against the police had originally been planned, but leaders from both groups met and decided a cookout complete with games, music and dancing could be more productive. Bill Chappell of NPR wrote about the First Steps Community Cookout organized by community leaders and the police department where community members were able to ask the police chief tough questions about policing in and around minority neighborhoods, how police officers are held accountable for their actions, and discuss other problems and possible solutions. Participants and police officers also played basketball, ate, listened to music and even danced together in a peaceful event that brought together group of people who are usually on opposite sides: white cops and black citizens. Pictures and videos of police officers dancing and playing ball with the citizens went viral on the internet. Chappell also included comments from a woman whose sons played basketball with the cops: “It was a bonding moment where the police saw them as children and my [sons] got to see them [the police] as people!” Again, a party-like atmosphere and music helped create the foundations for positive relationships between unlikely groups of people.
While music is not considered a “universal language”, it most certainly represents a “universal phenomenon” – one that is present in every human culture. Additionally, various cultures have engaged in music participation for the personal and social benefits it provides as opposed to solely focusing on the aesthetic experiences of the activity. For many, the therapy that music making provides is just as worthwhile as the song or dance that is created. Therefore, it is not surprising that throughout human existence music has played an important and sometimes critical role in helping individuals cope, survive, and enjoy a way of life.
Works Cited
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“Arkansas – Celebrating One Love, One Life.” Currentland.com – Oklahoma’s Alternative Guide to Entertainment. Currentland.com, Feb. 2015. Web. 29 July 2016.
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Boer, Diana, Richard Fischer, Micha Strack, Michael H. Bond, Eva Lo, and Jason Lam. “How Shared Preferences in Music Create Bonds Between People: Values as the Missing Link.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 37.9 (2011): 1159-171. Web. 26 July 2016.
Chang, Jeff. Can’t Stop, Won’t Stop: A History of the Hip-Hop Generation. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2005. Print.
Chappell, Bill. “Police And Black Lives Matter Hold A Cookout, And Praise Rolls In.” NPR. NPR, 19 July 2016. Web. 24 July 2016.
Hebdige, Dick. Subculture: The Meaning of Style. London: Routledge, 1979. Print.
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Salimpoor, Valorie N., Mitchel Benovoy, Kevin Larcher, Alain Dagher, and Robert J. Zatorre. “Anatomically Distinct Dopamine Release during Anticipation and Experience of Peak Emotion to Music.” Nature Neuroscience 14.2 (2011): 257-62. Web. 26 July 2016.
Suttie, Jill. “Four Ways Music Strengthens Social Bonds.” Greater Good Science Center. Greater Good Science Center – University of California, Berkley, 15 Jan. 2015. Web. 26 July 2016.
Suttie, Jill. “Why We Love Music.” Greater Good Science Center. Greater Good Science Center – University of California, Berkley, 12 Jan. 2015. Web. 26 July 2016.
Tarr, Bronwyn, Jacques Launay, and Robin I. M. Dunbar. “Music and Social Bonding: ‘self-Other’ Merging and Neurohormonal Mechanisms.” Frontiers in Psychology 5 (2014): 1096. PMC. Web. 27 July 2016.
